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Brain-Disabling Treatments in Psychiatry
Drugs, Electroshock, and the Psychopharmaceutical Complex
Second Edition, 2008

Peter R. Breggin, MD

Contents

Preliminary
The Brain-Disabling, Spellbinding Effects of Psychiatric Drugs
Deactivation Syndrome (Chemical Lobotomy) Caused by Neuroleptics
Neuroleptic-Induced Anguish, Including Agitation, Despair, and Depression
Severe and Potentially Irreversible Neurological Syndromes (Tardive Dyskinesia and Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome) Caused by Neuroleptics
Neuroleptic-Induced Neurotoxicity, Brain Damage, Persistent Cognitive Deficits, Dementia, and Psychosis
Recent Developments in Antidepressant Label Changes
Antidepressant-Induced Mental, Behavioral, and Cerebral Abnormalities
Lithium and Other Drugs for Bipolar Disorder
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) for Depression
10  From Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) to Bipolar Disorder: Diagnosing America's Children
11  Stimulant-Induced Brain Damage, Brain Dysfunction, and Psychiatric Adverse Reactions
12  Antianxiety Drugs, Including Behavioral Abnormalities Caused by Xanax and Halcion
13  The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH): Drug Company Advocates
14  Drug Company Deceptions
15  How to More Safely Stop Taking Psychiatric Drugs
16  Failed Promises, Last Resorts, and Psychotherapy
17  Appendix

Detailed Contents

Preliminary
    0.1  Front Page
        0.1.1  Back Page
    0.2  Beginning Items
        0.2.1  About the Author
        0.2.2  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
        0.2.3  Warning
        0.2.4  For Ginger Breggin
        0.2.5  Professional Books by Peter R. Breggin, MD
    0.3  Preface: A Word About Words
    0.4  Acknowledgments
    0.5  Introduction
        0.5.1  Confirming the Science Behind the First Edition
        0.5.2  A Thorough Update of the Science
        0.5.3  Growing Confirmation of the Previous Edition
        0.5.4  Confirming the Longer View Starting in 1983
        0.5.5  The Situation in Psychiatry Worsens
The Brain-Disabling, Spellbinding Effects of Psychiatric Drugs
    1.1  The Basic Four Brain-Disabling Principles
    1.2  Illustrative Research Confirming the Basic Four Brain-Disabling Principles
    1.3  Six Additional Brain-Disabling Principles
    1.4  The Biological Basis of Medication Spellbinding
    1.5  Psychological Influences on Medication Spellbinding
    1.6  Iatrogenic Helplessness and Denial in Authoritarian Psychiatry
    1.7  Relationship Between Medication Spellbinding and Iatrogenic Helplessness and Denial
    1.8  Mental and Emotional Suffering Routinely Treated with Biopsychiatric Interventions Have No Known Genetic or Biological Causes
    1.9  Conclusion
Deactivation Syndrome (Chemical Lobotomy) Caused by Neuroleptics
    2.1  The Myth that Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs Are Weaker D2 Blockers
    2.2  Examples of Differences Among Atypical Neuroleptics
        2.2.1  Clozapine (Clozaril)
        2.2.2  Risperidone (Risperdal)
    2.3  Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE)
    2.4  Deactivation Syndrome
    2.5  Deactivation and Medication Spellbinding
        2.5.1  The Anatomy of Deactivation
        2.5.2  Lobotomy-Like Neuroleptic Effects
        2.5.3  Atypical Neuroleptics
    2.6  Social Control with Antipsychotic Drugs
        2.6.1  Suppression of Nursing Home Inmates
        2.6.2  Deactivating People and Animals in Varied Settings
    2.7  The Unique Function of the Brain
Neuroleptic-Induced Anguish, Including Agitation, Despair, and Depression
    3.1  Resistance to Treatment
    3.2  Acute Dystonic Reactions
    3.3  Despair in Neuroleptic-Induced Parkinsonism
        3.3.1  Parkinsonism as an Aspect of Brain-Disabling Therapy
    3.4  Anguish in Akathisia
    3.5  Neuroleptic-Induced Depression and Suicidality
    3.6  Risks Associated with Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs
    3.7  The Issue of Coercion
Severe and Potentially Irreversible Neurological Syndromes (Tardive Dyskinesia and Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome) Caused by Neuroleptics
    4.1  Tardive Dyskinesia (TD)
        4.1.1  Clinical Manifestations of TD
        4.1.2  TD Rates
        4.1.3  Atypical Neuroleptics Cause TD in Adults
        4.1.4  Atypical Neuroleptics Cause TD in Children
        4.1.5  History of TD
        4.1.6  Masking the Symptoms of TD with Continued Neuroleptic Treatment
        4.1.7  Extrapyrarnidal Symptoms as Predictors of Future TD
        4.1.8  The Elderly and Other Vulnerable Populations
        4.1.9  Relapse, Exacerbation, and Delayed Onset After Termination
        4.1.10  Reversibility is Rare
        4.1.11  Physician and Patient Denial of TD
        4.1.12  The Size of the Epidemic
    4.2  Tardive Dystonia
    4.3  Tardive Akathisia
    4.4  Complications of Tardive Disorders
        4.4.1  Physical Exhaustion
        4.4.2  Psychological Suffering
    4.5  Neuroleptic Withdrawal Symptoms
        4.5.1  Are Neuroleptics Addictive?
    4.6  Other Adverse Reactions
    4.7  Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
    4.8  Biological Basis of Neuroleptic-Induced Neurological Syndromes
    4.9  Children and Neuroleptics
        4.9.1  Treating Childhood Tourette's with Neuroleptics
        4.9.2  The Food and Drug Administration Opens the TD and NMS Floodgates for Children
    4.10  Hurrying Death
    4.11  Conclusion
Neuroleptic-Induced Neurotoxicity, Brain Damage, Persistent Cognitive Deficits, Dementia, and Psychosis
    5.1  Demonstrating Neuroleptic-Induced Brain Damage And Cell Death
        5.1.1  PET Scans
        5.1.2  MRI
    5.2  CT Scans and Neuropsychological Correlations
        5.2.1  Correlating Tardive Dyskinesias (TD) with Brain Damage and Dementia
        5.2.2  Summary of Brain Study Data
    5.3  Rates of Tardive Dementia Based on Brain Scans
    5.4  Clinical Evidence
        5.4.1  Early Correlations Between TD and Cognitive Dysfunction
        5.4.2  Tardive Dysmentia and Tardive Dementia
        5.4.3  A Serendipitous Finding of Neuroleptic-Induced Generalized Cognitive Dysfunction
        5.4.4  Neuroleptic-Induced Mental and Behavioral Deterioration in Children
        5.4.5  Denial of Symptoms in TD Patients as a Symptom of Cognitive Dysfunction
        5.4.6  Permanent Lobotomy or Deactivation
        5.4.7  Tardive Psychosis in Neuroleptic-Treated Patients
        5.4.8  Psychiatry Avoids Facing Tardive Psychosis
        5.4.9  Tardive Akathisia and Cognitive Deficits
    5.5  Human and Animal Autopsy Studies
        5.5.1  Animal Autopsy Studies of Brain Damage Induced by Neuroleptic
        5.5.2  Human Autopsy Evidence for Neuroleptic-Induced Brain Damage
    5.6  Lessons of Lethargic Encephalitis
    5.7  Can Schizophrenia Cause Dementia?
    5.8  Psychiatric Denial of Neuroleptic-Induced Dementia
    5.9  Drugs to Treat Acute Extrapyramidal Side Effects
    5.10  Withdrawal Problems and Informed Consent
    5.11  Conclusion
Recent Developments in Antidepressant Label Changes
    6.1  Warning Signs From the Beginning
    6.2  The Class of SSRIs
    6.3  FDA Finds Increased Suicidality in Children Exposed to Antidepressants
    6.4  Easy to Show Serious Adverse Effects; Difficult to Show Efficacy
    6.5  Recent FDA Admissions and Warnings
        6.5.1  The Final Class Label on Suicidality in Children and Adolescents
        6.5.2  The Stimulant Syndrome
        6.5.3  The New FDA Medication Guide
        6.5.4  The FDA's Final Word on Antidepressant-Induced Suicidality in Children
        6.5.5  No Completed Suicides in the Clinical Trials
        6.5.6  Canadian and British Regulatory Wamings
        6.5.7  Expanding the Suicide Waming to Young Adults
        6.5.8  The FDA Helps Out the Drug Companies
        6.5.9  Paxil Is the Most Dangerous for Adults
        6.5.10  The Real-Life Risk Is Much Greater Than Described
    6.6  The Psychopharmaceutical Complex Responds
        6.6.1  The American College of Neuropsychopharmacology
        6.6.2  The American Psychiatric Association
    6.7  Antidepressants Lack Efficacy in Children
        6.7.1  So-Called Alternative Treatments
    6.8  Conclusion
Antidepressant-Induced Mental, Behavioral, and Cerebral Abnormalities
    7.1  The Risk of Agitated Depression
    7.2  Similarity of Adverse Drug Reaction Patterns Among SSRIs
    7.3  Studies Related to SSRI-Induced Depression and Suicidality in Adults
        7.3.1  Epidemiological Studies and Clinical Trials of SSRI-Induced Depression and Suicidality in Adults
        7.3.2  Coroner Studies of Adult Suicidality
        7.3.3  NIMH Confirms that SSRIs Cause Suicidality
        7.3.4  Case Reports of Mania, Violence, and Suicide in Adults
        7.3.5  Case Reports of SSRI-Induced Akathisia, Suicidality, and Aggression in Adults
        7.3.6  Case Reports of SSRI-Induced Obsessive , Suicidality and Aggression in Adults
        7.3.7  SSRI-Induced Apathy Syndrome in Adults
    7.4  Identifying Antidepressant-Induced
Compulsive Violence and Suicidality in Adults and Children

    7.5  Epidemiological Studies and Clinical Trials of SSRI-Induced Mania and Aggression in Adults
        7.5.1  Studies of Antidepressant-Induced Aggression in Adults
        7.5.2  Antidepressant-Induced Mania in Nonbipolar Adult Patients
        7.5.3  Manic Conversion (Switching) In Adult Bipolar Patients
    7.6  Comparing Antidepressant-Induced
Mania and Spontaneous Mania

    7.7  Antidepressant-Induced Mania Described in Two Standard Sources
        7.7.1  The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
        7.7.2  Practice Guidelines for Major Depressive Disorder in Adults
    7.8  Studies Related to SSRI-Induced Abnormal Behavior in Children
        7.8.1  Clinical Case Studies Involving Children
        7.8.2  Epidemiological Studies and Clinical Trials Involving Children
        7.8.3  Antidepressant-Induced Apathy in Children
    7.9  Do Antidepressants Work At All?
    7.10  The Elderly
    7.11  Professional Reactions
    7.12  Underlying Antidepressant-Induced Brain Damage and Dysfunction
        7.12.1  Permanent Neurological Adverse Effects
        7.12.2  The Brain Resists the Impact of SSRIs
        7.12.3  Causing Brain Dysfunction and Shrinkage
    7.13  Older Antidepressants
        7.13.1  Tricyclic Antidepressants and the Brain-Disabling Principie
        7.13.2  Tricyclics: More Cause Than Cure for Suicidality?
        7.13.3  Other Antidepressants
    7.14  Antidepressant Withdrawal Reactions, Including Mania
    7.15  My Clinical and Forensic Experience
    7.16  Discussion: "The Drug Made Me Do It"
    7.17  What Do the Specialists Know?
    7.18  Conclusion
Lithium and Other Drugs for Bipolar Disorder
    8.1  Claims of Lithium Specificity for Mania
    8.2  Brain-Disabling Effects on Animals, Infants, Patients, and Volunteers
        8.2.1  Subduing Effects on Animals
        8.2.2  Subduing Effects on Normal Infants
        8.2.3  Disabling Effects on Normal Volunteers
        8.2.4  Turning Down the Dial of Life
        8.2.5  Crushing Creativity
        8.2.6  Cade Supports the Brain-Disabling Hypothesis
    8.3  Spellbinding and Iatrogenic Helplessness and Denial
    8.4  Toxicity to the Central Nervous System
        8.4.1  The Production of Cognitive Deficits
        8.4.2  Acute Organic Brain Syndromes
        8.4.3  SILENT: Irreversible Lithium-Induced Neurotoxicity
    8.5  Neurotoxic Effects in Low-Dosage
Maintenance Therapy

        8.5.1  Abnormal Brain Waves Produced Routine Lithium Therapy
        8.5.2  Lithium Disruption of the Compromised
Brain

    8.6  Brain Damage As Treatment
        8.6.1  General Toxicity to Neurons and Other Cells
        8.6.2  The "Protective" and Therapeutic Effects of Poisoning Brain Cells
    8.7  The Relative Ineffectiveness of Lithium in Acute Mania
    8.8  How Effective Is Lithium in Preventing the Recurrence of Manic Episodes?
    8.9  Mania and Depression As Lithium
Withdrawal Reactions

    8.10  Other Adverse Reactions to Lithium Withdrawal
    8.11  Lithium in Your Drinking Water
    8.12  Other So-Called Mood Stabilizers
    8.13  Why So Many "Bipolar" Patients?
    8.14  Conclusion
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) for Depression
    9.1  A Life Destroyed By ECT
    9.2  Breaking News in ECT Research:
Shock Treatment Causes Irreversible Brain Damage and Dysfunction

    9.3  Still Avoiding the Facts
    9.4  More Breaking News in ECT Research: Shock Treatment Causes Suicide
    9.5  Additional Breaking News: ECT Is Ineffective
    9.6  Another Dramatic Event in the World of Shock Treatment
    9.7  The Food and Drug Administration and ECT
    9.8  The Politics of the 1990 American Psychiatric Association Report
    9.9  ECT, Women, and Memory Loss
    9.10  ECT and the Elderly
    9.11  Brain Injury By Electroshock
        9.11.1  The Production of Delirium (Acute Organic Brain Syndrome)
        9.11.2  ECT As Closed-Head Electrical Injury
        9.11.3  Death, Suicide, and Autopsy Findings
        9.11.4  Memory Deficits
    9.12  Studies of Brain Damage From ECT
        9.12.1  Brain Scans
    9.13  Modified ECT
        9.13.1  The Brain-Disabling Principle
        9.13.2  Iatrogenic Helplessness and Denial, and Spellbinding
    9.14  A Long Controversy Surrounding ECT
    9.15  The Need to Ban ECT
    9.16  Conclusion
10  From Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) to Bipolar Disorder: Diagnosing America's Children
    10.1  The ADHD/Stimulant Market
        10.1.1  Shifting Patterns of Use in the United States
        10.1.2  The Worldwide Market
    10.2  The ADHD Diagnosis
    10.3  Diagnosing Bipolar Disorder in Children
        10.3.1  How Doctors Learn to Diagnose and Medicate So-Called Bipolar Children
        10.3.2  Developing Guidelines for Medicating Children
        10.3.3  Public Backlash
        10.3.4  Growing Concerns About Adverse Effects
    10.4  Ramifications of the ADHD Diagnosis
        10.4.1  Destructive Behavior Disorders
        10.4.2  Add Criteria
        10.4.3  Russell Barkley: Rationalizing Oppressive Control
        10.4.4  A Disease that Goes Away with Attention
        10.4.5  ADD and TADD
    10.5  Critiques of ADHD
        10.5.1  Comorbidity and Misguided Diagnoses
        10.5.2  The Supposed Physical Basis for ADHD
        10.5.3  ADHD: An American Disease? A Boy's Disease
    10.6  CHADD: A Drug Company Advocate
        10.6.1  The Power Base of the Parent Groups
        10.6.2  On-The-Spot Diagnosis
    10.7  Mental Health Screening in Schools: The Latest Threat
    10.8  Moral, Psychological, and Social
Harm

        10.8.1  Like Shining Stars
11  Stimulant-Induced Brain Damage, Brain Dysfunction, and Psychiatric Adverse Reactions
    11.1  An Ineffective Treatment
    11.2  A Wide Variety of Adverse Effects
    11.3  More Extreme Intoxication Reactions
    11.4  Atomoxetine (Strattera)
        11.4.1  Strattera-Induced Suicidality
    11.5  The Food and Drug Administration Continues to Minimize the Risks of Stimulants
    11.6  Once Again, Too Little, Too Late
    11.7  A Triumph for the American Psychiatric Association
    11.8  Stimulant Dependence
    11.9  Concern At the Drug Enforcement Administration
    11.10  Nadine Lambert Studies
    11.11  The Brain-Disabling, Spellbinding Effects of Stimulants
    11.12  Brain Damage and Dysfunction Caused By Stimulants
        11.12.1  Brain Atrophy Caused By Methylphenidate
        11.12.2  Gross Brain Dysfunction Caused By Methylphenidate and Amphetamine
        11.12.3  Abnormalities of Brain Chemistry and Microscopic Pathology Caused By Stimulants
            11.12.3.1  Methamphetamine
            11.12.3.2  Amphetamine
            11.12.3.3  Methylphenidate
    11.13  The Latest Ominous News About Ritalin
    11.14  Developmental Neurotoxicity
    11.15  Growth Suppression Caused By
Stimulants

    11.16  Conclusion
12  Antianxiety Drugs, Including Behavioral Abnormalities Caused by Xanax and Halcion
    12.1  Frontier Research in Anesthesiology Confirms the Brain-Disabling Principle
    12.2  The Drugs
    12.3  Brain Disability As the Primary Clinical Effect
    12.4  Mechanisms for Producing Behavioral Abnormalities
    12.5  Adverse Reactions to Benzodiazepines (BZs)
        12.5.1  The Production of Mania and Rage
        12.5.2  The Production of Depression and Suicide
        12.5.3  Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Abnormalities Caused By Halcion and Xanax
        12.5.4  Evidence From the Food and Drug Administration's Spontaneous Reporting System
    12.6  American and British Responses Diverge
    12.7  Other Risks in Bz Use
        12.7.1  BZs As Instruments of Suicide
        12.7.2  Effects On Sleep and the Electroencephalogram
    12.8  The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Confirms Bz-Induced Persistent Amnesia and Dementia
        12.8.1  Research Indicating Persistent Impairment and Dementia From BZs
    12.9  Other Medications for Sleep
    12.10  Dependence and Withdrawal
    12.11  Conclusion
13  The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH): Drug Company Advocates
    13.1  Gaining Approval to Market the Drug
    13.2  Demonstrating Efficacy Before the Drug Is Marketed
    13.3  Creating the Label for the Drug
    13.4  Monitoring After Drug Approval
    13.5  Continuing Drug Company Responsibilities
    13.6  Testing Safety Before the Drug Is Marketed
    13.7  More Subtle Difficulties in Evaluating Clinical Trial Data
    13.8  Other Neglected Areas in the FDA Approval Process
    13.9  The Profit Motive
    13.10  Monitoring Safety After the Drug Is Marketed
        13.10.1  The Impact of Medwatch (The Spontaneous Reporting System)
        13.10.2  Drawing Scientific Conclusions From the Medwatch Srs
    13.11  Four Approval System Failures
        13.11.1  Failure to Recognize Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
        13.11.2  The FDA Caves in to Industry on Tardive Dyskinesia
        13.11.3  Massaged Data: The Prozac Approval Process
        13.11.4  Failing Behind European Standards: Zoloft
    13.12  NIMH
14  Drug Company Deceptions
    14.1  Relying on Junk Science
    14.2  Eli Lilly and Prozac
        14.2.1  Eli Lilly Knew From the Start that Prozac Acts Like A Stimulant
        14.2.2  Eli Lilly Successfully Bamboozles the Legal System
        14.2.3  Eli Lilly Acknowledges to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) That Prozac Frequently Causes Depression
        14.2.4  Eli Lilly Hides the Implications of Prozac-Induced Mania
        14.2.5  Eli Lilly Confirms and Hides Prozac Overstimulation
        14.2.6  Hiding the Risk of Prozac-Induced Mania and Aggression in Children
        14.2.7  Eli Lilly and the FDA Ignore Reports of Aggressive Behavior on Prozac
        14.2.8  Eli Lilly and the FDA Ignore Reports of Suicidal Behavior on Prozac
        14.2.9  Eli Lilly Hides Increased Suicidality on
Prozac in Controlled Clinical Trials

        14.2.10  Eli Lilly Employees Express Shame
        14.2.11  Adverse Reactions to Prozac in Eli Lilly's Earliest Research
        14.2.12  Prozac-Induced Aggression in Eli Lilly's Earliest Animal Studies
        14.2.13  British and German Regulatory Authorities Inquire About Prozac-Induced Stimulation, Agitation, and Depression
    14.3  Eli Lilly Hides Akathisia
    14.4  Lilly Covers Up Prozac Withdrawal Reactions
    14.5  Similar Drug Approval Problems with Zoloft and Paxil
    14.6  Prozac Interaction with Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors and Tryptophan
    14.7  Prozac in Combination with Tricycuc Antidepressants
    14.8  Eli Lilly Mired in Controversies with Life-Threatening Implications
    14.9  Lilly Fights to Hide Data on Deadly Adverse Drug Effects
    14.10  Glaxosmithkline (GSK) and Paxil
        14.10.1  Paxil Overstimulation
        14.10.2  The Lacuzong Case
    14.11  Paxil and GSK Criticized By Medical Journals and Foreign Drug Regulatory Agencies
    14.12  The Attorney General of New York State Takes Action Against GSK and Paxil
    14.13  Britain Takes Action
    14.14  British Psychiatry Versus American Psychiatry
    14.15  Better Than Nothing?
    14.16  A Final Word on Spellbinding
15  How to More Safely Stop Taking Psychiatric Drugs
    15.1  Basic Principles
    15.2  Special Problems
    15.3  Avoiding Life-Threatening Risks
        15.3.1  Physical Risks During Withdrawal
    15.4  Withdrawal Symptoms Associated with Specific Drugs
        15.4.1  Withdrawal From SSRIs
        15.4.2  Withdrawal From Tricyclics
        15.4.3  Withdrawal From Lithium and Other Mood Stabilizers
        15.4.4  Withdrawal From Neuroleptics
        15.4.5  Withdrawal From Stimulants
        15.4.6  Withdrawal From Benzodiazepines
    15.5  Psychotherapy During Drug Withdrawal
    15.6  Facing the Aftermath of Medication Spellbinding
    15.7  Celebrating A New Life
    15.8  The Therapist's Healing Presence
16  Failed Promises, Last Resorts, and Psychotherapy
    16.1  Actually Talk to Them?
    16.2  An Extensive Literature
    16.3  Psychiatric Drugs As A Last Resort
    16.4  The Surgeon, The Computer Specialist, and The Psychiatrist
    16.5  The Moral Foundation of Genuine Psychotherapy
        16.5.1  My Clinical Practice of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy
    16.6  The Function of Suffering
    16.7  Drug-Free Therapy
    16.8  20 Guidelines for Treating Deeply Disturbed Persons
        16.8.1  Welcome the person as you would a new friend
        16.8.2  Dare to be caring
        16.8.3  Create and maintain a safe and comfortable relationship
        16.8.4  Create an ideal of the highest ethical and personal standards
        16.8.5  Do not ignore or enable obnoxious or threatening behavior
        16.8.6  Notice odd behavior and ask what it is about
        16.8.7  Get to know the person as a fully developed human being
        16.8.8  Help your patients learn their own life story
        16.8.9  Be optimistic
        16.8.10  Be confident
        16.8.11  Be willing to improve your own attitudes
        16.8.12  Avoid using artificial therapeutic techniques
        16.8.13  Refuse to start patients on medication
        16.8.14  Refuse to take any kind of threatening, bullying, or coercive actions
        16.8.15  Welcome your patients' most painful feelings
        16.8.16  Share your most important values with your patients
        16.8.17  Make clear your last resort
        16.8.18  Address psychological or learned helplessness early in the therapy
        16.8.19  Be willing to offer practical advice and guidance
        16.8.20  Graciously recognize that you have no
monopoly on helping people

    16.9  Conclusion
17  Appendix
    17.1  Psychiatric Medications by Category
        17.1.1  Antidepressants
            17.1.1.1  Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
            17.1.1.2  Other Newer Antidepressants
            17.1.1.3  Older Antidepressants (Partial List)
        17.1.2  Stimulants
            17.1.2.1  Classic Stimulants
            17.1.2.2  Others
        17.1.3  Sedative, Hypnotic, and Anxiolytic Drugs (Tranquilizers and Sleeping Pills)
            17.1.3.1  Benzo Tranquilizers
            17.1.3.2  Benzo Sleeping Pills
            17.1.3.3  Non-Benzo Sleeping Pills
            17.1.3.4  Barbiturate Sleeping Pills
        17.1.4  Antipsychotic Drugs (Neuroleptics)
            17.1.4.1  Newer (Second- or Third-Generation or Atypical) Antipsychotics
            17.1.4.2  Older Antipsychotic Drugs
            17.1.4.3  Neuroleptics Used for Other Medical Purposes
        17.1.5  Lithium and Other Drugs Used as Mood Stabilizers
            17.1.5.1  Off-Label or Unapproved Mood Stabilizers
    17.2  Author's Note about the Bibliography